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Ringing It Out

Part One: Strategies and Standard Operating Procedures for Festival-Style Monitors

Introduction

After immersing myself in the fast-paced world of live sound from a young age, I’m taking a step back this winter to refine strategies and establish best practices for delivering consistent sonic success moving forward. This SOP is intended to streamline workflows and help achieve reliable, high-quality monitor mixes in festival-style settings. It condenses years of hard-earned experience into actionable steps to ensure artists have the monitor support they need to perform at their best.

Kiesza at Calgary’s Olympic Plaza on August 30th, 2023

The Non-Negotiables

Proven Equipment:

Comprehensive Event Information

Venue and Stage Details:

Pre-Production Logistics

Console Prep

Familiarize yourself with the desk ahead of time. Lay out buses, sends, and channel layouts for efficiency.

Ringing Out Wedges

Setup and Workflow

Identify Feedback Frequencies

Feedback Management SOP

  1. Gradually increase the mix fader on Wedge One until feedback starts.
  2. Identify the ringing frequency using the RTA and your ears, then call it out.
  3. Apply a 3dB or more cut on the closest band of the graphic EQ.
  4. Repeat this process 2-3 times until multiple frequencies ring simultaneously, achieving an optimal balance.
  5. Save (or document if on analog gear) EQ settings in case adjustments need to be revisited during the performance.
  6. Be prepared to make aggressive EQ cuts for performers who cup the mic or move around frequently.
  7. Sometime you will have to prioritize a feedback-free environment over perfect tone, adjusting in real time as needed.

Optimizing for the Room

Save the Start Scene

Save a “ready-to-go” scene if you can that includes:

Conclusion

By focusing on preparation, communication, and precision, this SOP will help you deliver consistent, high-quality monitor mixes, even under festival-level pressure. Remember: your ears, clear communication, solid preparation, and a calm demeanour are the ultimate tools in your kit. Let’s make 2025 the year of flawless stage sound and sonic excellence!

Thanks

I would like to express my gratitude to Darrell Smith, Fred Boehli, Kiesza, UVS and SoundGirls.

New Beginnings – Changing Audio Disciplines

Audio is a beautiful medium. There are so many things you can do within it, so many different paths your career can take. Sometimes, even if your passion for audio is as strong as it always has been, you can become disillusioned with your chosen discipline. This is what happened to me over the last couple of years.

If you’ve read any of my previous blogs for SoundGirls, you’ll have noticed that my discipline has been radio and podcast production. To recap, I spent several years working in broadcasting after obtaining my Master’s degree in Radio Production, and after going freelance during the pandemic, I started producing and editing podcasts. I also made a couple of radio documentaries which were both shortlisted in their respective categories at the New York Festivals Radio Awards (in 2021 and 2024).

“Sounds glamorous!” I can’t tell you how often people have said that to me on learning what it is I do (or have done). Everything I’ve made and every project I’ve worked on has been the result of hard work and dedication. But there’s a whole other side that most people haven’t seen, like the financial struggles and uncertainty that come with freelancing, the constant competing for jobs and fighting for acceptable rates of pay, and the long list of rejected funding applications and project proposals. Nobody ever said this industry would be easy, and plenty of people manage to stick it out despite wondering: “Why did I ever want to do this?” But others can’t, and I was one of them.

Don’t get me wrong, I loved a lot of it. I’ve always seen myself as a storyteller and I don’t for a moment regret any of the ideas I had that came to fruition. But the time came when I started to think there had to be more out there for me to do. For example, I really missed that live sound environment. Even though it still took place in a studio, one of my favourite things to do had always been to get my hands on the faders of a mixing console. That’s where I originally saw my career in radio going, but it didn’t quite end up that way (though not for lack of trying).

At some point I started to think more about branching out into theatre and live events. It’s ironic that this happened during a time when the entire industry was shut down due to a global pandemic, with little idea of when (or if) things would be the same again. But I made a promise to myself to explore the idea further when the picture was clearer.

Sure enough, Guildhall School of Music & Drama in London advertised an intensive three-day short course in theatre sound engineering in summer 2023, intended as an introduction to the different roles within a theatre sound department and a chance to learn some of the basics. I went, and loved it. I learned about mic fitting and a little bit of Dante networking and got to practise using a Yamaha console. I was also so excited by the drama school environment and decided to look into it some more.

That’s when I realised how expensive most drama schools can be, especially if you’ve already gained higher education qualifications as I had. It was also tough to find courses that focused completely on sound (rather than technical theatre generally) and wouldn’t mean investing another three years of my life in education. I put the idea on the back-burner for a while. In January 2024, I was lucky to get the chance to shadow the sound department on The Rocky Horror Show when it came to Dublin on tour. I had an amazing few days, and afterwards I asked several members of the team for advice on getting a foot in the door. They all recommended trying to find depping work. I contacted every theatre and venue I could think of, with no luck at all. Unfortunately the industry in Ireland is incredibly small so I knew I’d have to find a way to move back to the UK if I wanted to stand a real chance.

That’s when I stumbled upon a brand new, year-long professional diploma starting in September at the Bristol Institute of Performing Arts. While not a sound course per se, it was one of three pathways available along with lighting design and stage management. All you had to do was select your preferred pathway during the application process. It was also much more affordable than the other educational options I’d come across, and could give me the hands-on experience I needed in one year rather than three. I applied, interviewed and was accepted.

And now here I am, living in the beautiful historic city of Bath in south-west England, commuting the short distance to Bristol by train and immersing myself in an area of sound that is new to me, yet allows me to draw on the fundamentals I’m already well acquainted with (signal flow, for example, or — when it comes to sound design — working with DAWs). I’ve already designed and mixed one show and am about to start on another; all of which I’ll be blogging about my experiences of as the year goes on.

Some people have questioned why I felt the need to undertake a course like this when I “already know everything about sound”. First things first, nobody knows everything about sound. There are just too many different disciplines within it and no one can master all of them (even one is enough for most). And it’s not just about sound; I’m learning about how theatre works as a whole, how different departments work together, how technicians and performers communicate with each other and what it takes to bring a show to life. Beyond that, I’m making contacts I would not have had the chance to otherwise. I’m also learning more about myself in the process; discovering strengths I didn’t know I had and encountering new challenges.

Would I call it a career change? Yes and no. I’m still a SoundGirl either way, but crossing over into another discipline will hopefully expand the opportunities that are available to me.

Mastering the New Workplace: The Art of Being a Sponge 

As a 22 year old female who is growing in this industry everyday, I have been told on multiple occasions how important it is to be a “sponge” in a new workplace. What does this mean? And why does everyone say it?

Well, it means to:

  1. Soak up as much knowledge as possible.
  2. Observe keenly.
  3. Adapt to the environment quickly.

I completely understand how nerve racking this feels. Its hard to find the balance between being helpful and not being in the way. So how do we change our mindset so that it focuses on growing in this field?

BE CURIOUS! it’s so crucial to approach every interaction and task as an opportunity to learn. Show your genuine interest in your colleagues and the production. Volunteer on things that will immerse yourself in the team’s workflow. I have also found that it is really helpful to familiarize yourself with all of the gear before the gig, if possible. And if you are unsure about a piece of gear, ask someone to explain its function and application. Ask thoughtful questions in quieter moments about why certain decisions are made.

CHILL. It has taken my fair share of gigs to learn how crucial it is to stay calm under pressure. Watch how others handle sudden issues and take notes. Offer help when it is needed or simply shadow the troubleshooting process. Being able to resolve problems effectively will ensure smooth operations and prevent issues from happening in the future. This will ultimately increase your confidence in yourself and others, building the core trust that is needed for a strong production team.

MASTER THE INTANGIBLES! Besides the technical details, you must learn the intangibles! Notice the informal norms like when and where decisions are made, recognize the way the A1s, music A2s, Production A2, Monitor techs, System techs, etc collaborate with one another, observe how a crew talks to the talent. Learn the dynamics and integrate quickly. Even being proactive in a production meeting with a friendly introduction can go a long way.

SEEK FEEDBACK. Asking for feedback and embracing the outcome gracefully is an amazing skill to have and will help you improve. Reflecting has always been a key part of the load out for me. Analyze what worked and recognize what could improve. It’s important to evaluate your progress and assess what you’ve learned and identify the gaps. Everyone has room for improvement.

OWN YOUR EXPERTISE. Lastly, be confident! You deserve to be here as much as everyone else does. Focus on your own qualifications and what you bring to the table. Advocate for yourself and ensure that your contributions are recognized. I believe that authenticity fosters respect and using the inevitable challenges to strengthen your skills will make you that much more resilient.

I also want to acknowledge how easier said than done all of these things are. It’s hard to be assertive, quick, and confident in an environment where you are uncomfortable. It is hard to bypass the nerves and jump headfirst. It’s terrifying to walk into an uneasy position, but that is where transformation happens.

Leaning into discomfort will lead to incredible opportunities you may not have found by playing it safe. It’s important to remind yourself that you can only do your best, stay calm, and simply be a sponge! Every show is a chance to refine your skills and become a better technician. By maintaining a learning mindset, you can carve out your place and thrive in any workplace. Respect will grow from your knowledge, collaboration, and authenticity. So in the beginning, soak it all up, baby!

Fielding Feedback

Sound is a department that a lot of people don’t understand, but everyone has an opinion about it. Learning how to navigate notes, complaints, and feedback (the people kind, not the speaker kind!) is a skill that’s imperative for your sanity in this career. So how do you deal with them?

Let’s start with the creative team. Obviously, whatever notes or feedback you get from your design team you should take and implement. It’s their job to fine tune the mix and tech is an excellent time to pick their brain so you can learn why they’ve made certain decisions, and then you yourself can make more informed choices when they’re no longer in the room.

Getting notes isn’t a bad thing. Sometimes it feels like it’s an inherently negative experience because people are telling you all the things you did wrong during the show, but it’s better if you can frame it as improving so you can level up your skills or your show.

Unfortunately, that’s not to say you won’t run in to people who are insensitive or even deliberately harsh when giving notes. I had an A1 who would give me notes one day then, on another day, give me additional feedback that seemed to contradict what he had said before. Another time, when I was learning the mix, the notes I got from the A1 was that “it was bad” and I “needed to do better.” Which felt like it was intended to knock me down a peg and make me feel insecure.

If notes don’t make sense, ask them to clarify. If what they’re saying feels cruel, that’s harder to unpack. In my example, I wish I’d had the wherewithal to ask my A1 to be more specific so I had actionable items to work on instead of a sense of general, unhelpful disapproval. Sometimes it’s simple as starting a conversation about how their tone is coming across, but that’s not always the case. If you don’t think you can have a productive dialogue with the person noting you, but do feel comfortable talking to someone else on the team, go to them and ask for advice.

If you’re an A1 noting your A2, it’s good to remember that in many cases, mixing is not necessarily something they consider their primary job. Some career A2s enjoy mixing, but others do it because it’s an expectation of the job and still get nervous at the console.

The most important thing is to be specific with your notes. Don’t just say it was bad, talk about what happened and the best way to fix it. (Again, harsh language like that is asking for confidence issues and potentially creating bad blood in your department.)

Acknowledge mistakes, but don’t harp on them if the mixer already knows. Missed pick ups are a fairly obvious thing, so I usually say something like “you missed that line, but you already know that.” That way they know I was paying attention, but we’re not spending extra time when the solution is to not miss it in the future.

If there are repeat problems, ask for feedback. What seems to be tripping them up? Helping someone’s mix improve is a two-way street.

All that being said, if you think your creatives can be harsh critics, I’d like to introduce you to your audience.

There’s a Cracked article by Jason Pargin that I love. I’ve had it saved as my browser homepage for probably the last five or so years (probably more). The premise of the article is a “New Year New Me” feel, but with a side of smack-you-upside-the-head realism. It asks what you can DO. Not if you’re a nice person or have a lack of faults, but what skills do you have?

It’s well worth the read.

It makes a point that when you make something, people will feel the need to comment on, criticize, and critique it. When you put something creative into the world you are inviting that world to tell you how you’ve done it wrong. Cue the audience. Those who’ve never attempted to do it (and have no idea what goes into it) are sure they could do it better and all those Karens will happily tell you that your work is simply not up to snuff. After more than a decade at the console, I’ve met plenty of them.

When I was on Saigon, I had one man stand by FOH and tell me that the show sounded bad and just kept repeating that until I had exhausted my usual polite responses, hit the end of my patience, and finally told him he was being rude. To which he responded “I’m not rude, I’m telling you it’s bad” and huffed off.

In another venue we had a 45 minutes show hold for automation which resulted in four pages of audience complaints which ranged from “I can’t believe they still had intermission after we already had to wait for 45 minutes” to “we held for so long and the sound wasn’t fixed when they restarted.”

On Les Mis, I had someone tell me that he’s seen the show 25 times and he knew how it was supposed to sound.

I’ve forgotten the venue but there was an online review that I kept a screenshot of because I couldn’t help but laugh at the perfect example of what we struggle with every day:

Credit is usually given to the actors. Criticism is usually given to the crew. The sounds they heard that were indeed too clear and strong to come from a mere mortal since it was in reality coming from a sound system that created both the “out of body experience” and the times they had trouble with the lyrics.

Pro Tip: don’t go fishing for reviews. People like to criticize and complain much more than they like to compliment (again, reference the Cracked article’s point).

In one theatre I was warned by the house head that the venue gave out free drink tickets to mollify people who complained, so shows always got a lot of complaints because patrons knew they’d get the tickets.

On Outsiders I had a man come up to tell me that the show sounded atrocious.

We’d also had a couple complaints over a few shows that the speaker in front of them (a side fill) wasn’t working. I double checked and it was, but they were reacting to the fact that it was delayed in such a way that you placed the sound as coming from the stage instead of sourcing to that particular speaker.

Sometimes you’ll have a person come up and complain and someone else right behind them will overhear and tell you they could hear everything perfectly fine.

Some are trying to be helpful and alert you of a potential problem. Some want to talk to your manager. Some just want to be right. Others might have hearing issues that they don’t even know about. I’ve worked in theatres with seating capacities from 1,000 to 4,000 and it’s nearly impossible to make every single one of those people happy.

Most of the time, dealing with complaints in the moment is fairly easy. I’ll usually ask them where they’re sitting and tell them that we’ll look into the problem.

The belligerent ones and the Karens are the outliers. If anyone won’t take a simple answer, send them to House Management and say those employees can better deal with their feedback.

My general rule for complaints is: 

One person puts me on alert: there might be something wrong, but it’s doesn’t require immediate action.

Two complaints will put me on guard: I might need to do something, so let’s make some cursory looks at potential reasons for a problem.

Three or more means that something likely is wrong and I need to actively look into making a change.

The logistics of dealing with complaints is usually simple, the bigger issue is that it’s very easy for them to get under your skin. Now that someone has told you something’s wrong, you start to second guess what you’re doing and how it sounds.

Unfortunately, there’s no easy way to develop a thick skin so you can mix through negative feedback, but it’s almost an essential for mixers.

When in doubt, circle back to your team. If you’re in the same city as your designer, ask them to come back and note (or if they’ve already gotten feedback from other people who’ve been by to note the show). If you’re on tour, ask someone who’s been out to listen recently (PSM, resident director, conductor) if things still sound consistent, or ask if they can come out to listen at some point. Get out in the house yourself while the A2 is mixing (if there’s time in the backstage track). You can learn a lot about how everything comes together when you’re able to get out from FOH and walk around the balconies and the sides and hear how the mix translates to the other areas of the theatre.

At the end of the day, you were hired because they trusted you to do your job. Notes are meant to help you do the best job you can, and audience members will keep you humble. Treat everyone with respect (unless they fail to respect you in turn), and keep trying to learn.

Sage Tichenor – Independent FOH Engineer

Sage is a freelance touring FOH engineer and classically trained flautist. In December 2018 she graduated from Middle Tennessee State University with a B.M in Music Industry and a B.S. in Audio Production. While in school, Sage began working at a major local rehearsal studio, which she continued to pursue following graduation. She started touring as a FOH engineer in the fall of 2021 with country artist Riley Green and currently mixes FOH for violinist Lindsey Stirling. When she’s not on the road, Sage enjoys mixing local shows and spends her free time rock climbing and playing music.

Sage has dedicated the past seven years to working in audio, a passion deeply rooted in a lifelong connection to music and musicians. Growing up, Sage was immersed in a musical environment and began learning to play instruments at a young age.

Early experiences hinted at her future in audio. A cousin introduced her to using microphones when she was just a child, and a memorable moment at an experimental aircraft convention stood out: her father encouraged her to approach a performer and ask how he amplified his flute. As a flautist herself, this interaction sparked curiosity about sound amplification. These gradual exposures laid the foundation, but it wasn’t until high school that Sage fully immersed herself in production and mixing. By her junior year, she realized that audio could become her career path.

After high school, Sage pursued her passion academically at Middle Tennessee State University, where she studied Audio Production and the Music Industry. Her dedication and hard work earned her two bachelor’s degrees, solidifying her expertise and commitment to the field.

Career Start

How did you get your start?

I started working at Soundcheck, the rehearsal studio in Nashville, before I graduated college in 2018, and following graduation I maintained employment there until 2021. Outside of Soundcheck, I spent a lot of time finding local festivals, venues, and churches who would let me get behind a console. I got picked up for a tour in the Fall of 2021. In the beginning, before my time at the rehearsal studio, I had a hard time convincing people to let me mix, but met some folks at a bluegrass festival who gave me a shot.

How did your early internships or jobs help build a foundation for where you are now? 

These early gigs taught me hard  skills, like basic application of audio fundamentals, and how to read manuals and then apply that information. I learned how to use my voice and take control of a soundcheck.

What did you learn interning or on your early gigs?

My early gigs taught me that there was never a wrong question and no shame in asking for help. One time, I fumbled so hard because I couldn’t figure out a wacky show file, and compromised the band’s show. I disappointed a lot of people. But it gave me time to reflect on the massive mistake, and I sharpened my skills and recovered. I think people forget that we learn from mistakes, and while I was (and maybe still am) ashamed of that experience, it showed me where I was weak and what I needed to do to improve. In this situation it would have been really easy to use a resource that was definitely available to me, and that was calling another engineer that was also on staff who had most definitely seen that file before.

Did you have a mentor or someone that really helped you?

I feel like I could truly shout out so many people, which I’m grateful for. It’s awesome to know I’ve built a little community. I have a friend named David Bliss who was the first person ever probably to let me take a crack at mixing. In the beginning he let me have hands-on experience learning the basics and gave me room to make mistakes and be curious. He’s still a very good friend of mine. My team from my first tour was huge to my success, including all the other engineers on tours we were support on. I’m so grateful to people like Brett “Scoop” Blanden and Wayne Pauley also who have such a passion for their careers and have been so influential in mine.

Career Now

What is a typical day like? 

My day looks a little different depending on what tour I’m on, but generally follows the same structure. First, a non-negotiable is that I find coffee and a light morning snack. Then, once I walk into the venue, I get a lay of the land, scoping out the load-in and snake paths to FOH. I might chat with local audio or my SE about expectations for the day/PA, and see how my monitor engineer even feels about the place. Once I get setup, time permitting, I will get a virtual soundcheck going and work on the show file until it’s time to tune the system. That final process can vary depending on if I’m the SE or if I have mine with me, but regardless we’ll measure the system and listen and do lots of walking to make sure coverage is optimal, and that it not only sounds correct but also feels correct.

How do you stay organized and focused? 

To stay organized and focus, I take a lot of notes. I have a little notebook that I put my mix notes, analysis, and description of the room into, and I also have little gaff tape notes all over my console that I come back to as “to-dos” the next day. These include mixing notes to myself, or criticisms from people, or things I wish to do better, including interpersonal interactions.

Sometimes staying organized and focused can be challenging. I’ve made a lot of decisions to make sure I’m doing my best to keep my brain healthy to support how tough touring can be. I’m sober, so that helps my mental focus a ton, and also I’ve noticed if I’m eating well and taking time to workout, I tend to feel more alert and can settle into a zone during the show.

What do you enjoy the most about your job? 

I honestly just love mixing. I love the challenging venues as much as I love nights when all the variables align and I can just focus on having complete creative control. It’s the most fulfilling thing to be a part of people’s visions and help projects and messages come to life. I love that not every day is the same, but there’s a thrill to chasing the 1% in my mix everyday and finding solutions to creating the same show.

What do you like about touring?

I love traveling, especially to Europe. A lot of small towns in the States are beautiful and I’m always pleasantly surprised by a lot of places we go to where the food or city itself is incredible. Equally, touring internationally has been a huge reward. I’ve seen Banff, been to Jerusalem, and seen things I’ve read in books that I never imagined I’d get to see. I also really enjoy getting to see so many of my friends and family that live around the world. I’ve run into people in the most unexpected places, like a buddy from college in Amsterdam this past fall.

What do you like least?

Being away from loved ones during adverse times.

What is your favorite day off activity? 

I love to go hiking, explore local museums and meals with my friends. On days off I try to squeeze in a run, which is so important to my mental health. I also have a cute Olympus OM1 that encourages me to get outside and explore the town.

What are your long term goals? 

I definitely want to keep touring, and continue mixing FOH, for as long as I can. I love being a part of high production shows, but really I just want to make good music with people who are kind and passionate about their craft. Whether that is bigger production or bigger venues, I want to keep the ceiling high. It’d be awesome to mix a show at Madison Square Garden and mix a headline stadium tour someday. Maybe someday I’ll work for a console company or get into A&R for some gear manufacturers.

What if any obstacles or barriers have you faced?

Most of the time when people question me, it’s because I’m young and have a shorter experience touring in comparison to many people. The arguments in question are pretty much always systems related, and why I want to make some decisions, like preferring flown subs over ground subs.

How have you dealt with them? 

Honesty goes a long way. I won’t pretend I know something if I don’t, so I’ll allow other people to make their case and hear them out on it, but at the end of the day, I’m mixing the show for an artist I was hired by.  Some things I ask for are almost tried-and-true, but sometimes there are other ways to achieve a goal, so I enjoy inviting people into the conversation. Usually, explaining my goal and perspective helps both of us reach common ground.

Advice you have for women who wish to enter the field?

Must have skills? 

Good aural recognition and work to improve it constantly. Listen to a lot of music.

Solid troubleshooting and level-headness. Understand gain structure. If you want to be a mix engineer, also be willing to understand line array theory and understand how your system is affecting your mix, and so you can talk to your SE.. If you want to be a systems engineer, be able to relate to your engineer and speak their language to help them translate their mix. Be able to solder and repair many things.

Favorite gear? 

Currently, my console of choice is definitely the Yamaha Rivage PM5. Aside from control surfaces, I really love the Xvive wireless transmitters for a quick and dirty PA tuning, and my Soundbullet.

Anything else you want to add or contribute?

I graduated, I had two degrees. On paper it probably looks awesome from a traditional perspective. In reality, I kind of struggled with school. I’m a bad test taker and tried balancing way too many activities. But while I was attending school, I was working in an industry I wanted to be in and was finding ways to get a bunch of other hands-on experience. My dad always said that I shouldn’t “let my schooling get in the way of my education.” School was influential, for sure, and not a waste, but the most significant part of that experience was the connections I made and the people who took a chance on me, not because I was studious, but because they saw my interest and how badly I wanted to make it happen. I don’t think it was my degree that got me here, but instead my work ethic, determination, and the community I gained from that experience.

Check out Sage’s blog for SoundGirls

Join SoundGirls at NAMM with Meyer Sound!

Big shout out to Meyer Sound for inviting and hosting us!

Come meet other SoundGirls and connect with Meyer Sound at 11:00 AM on Thursday, 1/23 during NAMM. This is a fantastic opportunity to network, learn, and celebrate with fellow audio professionals.

Kanika Khanna will be leading this exciting SoundGirls event. Let’s make it a great turnout!

Sign up here so we can let Meyer Sound know how many to expect.

Thank you again to Meyer Sound for your generosity and support of the SoundGirls community. We can’t wait to see you there!

SoundGirls Grants for L-Acoustics Connect Conference

SoundGirls, in collaboration with L-Acoustics, is excited to announce that L-Acoustics will be offering 8 grants to the L-Acoustics Connect conference happening March 11-13, 2025, in Paris, France. These grants will cover the recipient’s registration at the conference, including the training on Day 1 and 4 nights of hotel accommodation. Any person who is an active member of SoundGirls, anywhere in the world, can apply.

Travel expenses such as flights and transportation are not covered by the grant. Meals will be available during the conference. 

APPLY HERE

The trainings offered at the conference on Day 1 include:

You must have completed the following prerequisites to apply for a grant that includes any of the following training on day 1: M1-P1 Measurement & Tuning, Festival Project Workshop, or Touring Project Workshop. 

The prerequisites are indicated below and must be completed before the L-Acoustics Connect conference starts.

Applicants must choose one training day to apply for and L-Acoustics will award one grant for each training+conference except for the L2 System training which will have 2 associated grants awarded.

Applications for the grant are due by January 31, 2025.

Grant recipients will be announced by February 11, 2025.

APPLY HERE

Analog Dynamic Compressors: More to Know

INTRO

Dynamic compressors are a vital part of the signal chain for audio engineering in a variety of scenarios. Their usage to tame the dynamic range of sound is important in giving listeners the ideal experience. The basic knowledge for using compressors remains the same across all the types; however, knowing the intricacies of each type can enhance the resulting mix, and enrich geeky curiosities. The “type” of compressor, in this article, will refer to the type of gain reduction element used in the circuit.

This article involved a lot of research and reading, so if one wants to read further on this topic, there are online and book sources provided at the end. But if one decides to engage in this rabbit hole, good luck. 

REVIEW ON COMPRESSORS

A quick review about dynamic compressors. The basic intention of a dynamic processor is to alter the dynamic range of the audio material passed through. The dynamic range is the difference between the softest and loudest sound. A compressor is used to decrease the audio’s dynamic range. It is to avoid the scenario of a listener having their hand constantly on the volume knob, having to anticipate suddenly turning up the volume at super quiet sections and then turning down the volume when the audio is blasting to prevent their eardrums from bursting.

The basic controls we all know and love are tuned by the user to get the desired output. The threshold is the set level of the audio signal input that’s supposed to trigger the compressor to engage. The ratio controls how much compression is applied to the input signal. A ratio of “X:Y” said to mean that any signals X dB above the threshold gets attenuated by Y dB. The attack time is the time it takes from the uncompressed signal to become a fully compressed signal after the input signal goes over the threshold level. The release time is defined as the time it takes the compressed signal to go back to being an uncompressed signal after the input signal goes back below the threshold level.

Some compressors have additional features such as a knee control or makeup gain with the knee controlling the abruptness of the input signal goes between the compressed and uncompressed upon output. The makeup gain control is present to compensate for the decrease in overall level that’s inherent to the compression process. Another form of the makeup gain control is saying it has an output level control. Some compressors have a control to change how much input level, or uncompressed signal, will initially be sent into the compressor.

Compressors’ central mechanism is the gain reduction element. This usually involves the input signal getting split and routed into two separate paths: the detector path and output path. The detector path will determine how much compression the input signal will undergo in the output path. The output path, of course, undergoing the compression effect itself and routed to the output of the compressor and is what gets heard by the user.

VCA COMPRESSOR TYPES

The first type of gain reduction element to be examined in compressors will be the VCA compressor type. VCA stands for “voltage-controlled amplifier.” The “VCA compressor” designation indicates that the VCA is housed in an integrated circuit chip. These types of compressors are sought after for their ability to have fast attack and release times, transparent and clean sound, and precision in user controls. The fast attack and release times make this type the ideal for controlling and catching transient spikes. VCA compressor types are most likely to have all of the controls everyone is used to seeing and associating with compressors and are the most common.

In the gain reduction circuit for VCA compressors, the integrated circuit (IC) chip contains transistors that read the input signal/voltage. This chip splits the signal into the detector and output paths. Back in the days of analog consoles, consoles had VCA faders. The engineer would switch what other channel faders, on the console, that they wanted to control in a group by linking said channel faders to the VCA group. Then the engineer would be able to physically move the VCA fader level up and down. The VCA fader movement would enable the engineer to control the overall level of the channel faders in the VCA group while maintaining the relative fader mix of those channel faders.

In the VCA compressor, the control signal can be thought of in a way as the engineer moving that VCA fader level up and down, controlling if the signal level in the output path is brought up or down. Among the many things one can use, voltage is capable of being used to control the amount of signal that passes through the VCA. The input signal is copied, and one copy goes to the control path, the other is sent to the audio path. The one in the control path gets converted to DC and then undergoes other alterations through resistors and capacitors based on the user settings of attack and release times. Then, the altered converted DC signal makes its way to the VCA where the effect of the ratio is determined by the levels of the audio signal path input and the altered DC signal being compared. A bigger level difference means the VCA applies more gain reduction. With the IC chip, there’s great precision over gain reduction and an ability to fine tune the sound along with the user’s ability to affect the control path through the front panel controls.

One of the examples that a lot of articles name as the go-to example of the VCA-type compressor is the dbx 160. Other examples include the SSL G and SSL E buss compressors, the API 2500, Empirical Labs EL8 Distressor, Focusrite Red 3 and Red 7, Smart Research C2, Alesis 3630, Maxon CP9 Pro Plus, and the Boss CS-3.

FET COMPRESSOR TYPES

Compressors with this type of gain reduction element were designed with the idea to emulate the sound of compressors with vacuum tube gain reduction elements (more on that later) by use of solid state and transistor circuits. FET stands for “field effect transistor.” These compressors are claimed to be more suited when engineers desire a more aggressive compression on the sound. They usually brag a feedback design and give a program-dependent compressor. Their sonic characteristics include being described as punchy, bright, colorful, and being able to preserve transient information. Colorful merely means the compressor adds harmonic distortion that wasn’t present in the original input signal. Another way of thinking of that is saying the FET compressors are less clean sounding than the VCA compressors, for the most part. These for the most part use the feedback configuration.

FET’s are a type of transistor. The word transistor comes from the words “transmitter” and “resistor” put together. A transistor is a type of semiconductor. Semiconductor atoms require a certain amount of charge to conduct electricity, putting them in between being an insulator and a conductor. The FET is a 3-terminal unipolar device, so it depends on one type of charge carrier: electrons or holes. These are voltage-controlled devices. The input voltage determines the output current. The terminals include the drain, source, and gate(s). The gates are located on the sides of the FET and control current flow. The current flow is dependent on the drain-source voltage and drain-source resistance.

In FET compressors, the FET is used as a voltage-controlled variable resistor, where the FET would be the resistor with a resistance that’s determined by the voltage applied to its gate. More voltage applied to the FET gate means a smaller drain-source resistance. Lower FET resistance results in less gain from the FET, so higher strength input signals make the FET reduce in gain, resulting in the reduced signal level.

The famous FET compressor everyone refers to first is the UREI 1176. It also had a less famous stereo version called the UREI 1178. Other FET compressors include the Chandler Little Devil and Daking FET III.

OPTICAL “OPTO” COMPRESSOR TYPES

Electro-optical (opto). compressors employ light-sensitive resistors (LSR) and photocells in their compression mechanism. These compressors are said to be ideal for averaging and smoothing out the dynamics instead of catching transients.

As the name would indicate, the gain reduction circuits from these compressors center around the element of light. The optical isolator circuit inside the compressor is made up of this newly transduced light source and a photocell. Even though audio signal gets converted into voltage by a microphone (a transducer), there is another transducer that converts the voltage into a light signal with proportional brightness in the compressor. The photocell is the detector. The audio signal (voltage), now transduced into light has a brightness that corresponds to the amplitude of the input signal. A higher input signal strength means a brighter light. This light usually is in the form of a light bulb or light emitting diode (LED). The light shines onto a light-sensitive resistor (LSR) which has less resistance when exposed to higher brightness of light. A higher input signal means the light bulb or LED shines brighter onto the LSR. This means the LSR resistance decreased. This LSR is usually configured in a feedback loop or voltage configuration that determines how the input signal will be altered in the output path.

The amount of resistance in the light sensitive element in the LSR determines how much and how fast the compression circuit brings down the input signal when it goes over the threshold. The time it takes for the filament in the light bulb to adjust to the signal input strength is relatively slow (compared to the other compressor types). There’s a lag time between the detection of the light and acting gain reduction on the input signal. There’s also a very nonlinear attack and release response. A big transient may have a quick initial release, but this characteristic will eventually become nonlinear as the output becomes uncompressed again. This is why the opto compressors are not recommended for straight-up taming of transients.

As mentioned, these types of compressors are said to be more ideal in smoothing and averaging out the dynamics. In the days of yore, the light and light sensitive resistor were separate parts, but today the light and LSR are found in one small cylinder. Originally, they were used a lot on bass and guitar tracks, but of course everyone uses them everywhere now.

The big name among opto compressors out there is the Teletronix LA-2A. It’s relative, the Teletronix LA-3A, is also of the opto compressor type. Other opto compressors include the Manley Laboratories ELOP (stands for “Electro Optical”) Limiter, Avalon AD2044, and Shadow Hills Mastering compressor.

VACUUM TUBE AND DELTA-MU COMPRESSOR TYPES

These compressors rely on vacuum tubes as their gain reduction element. “Delta” is a Greek letter and in science is used as a symbol meaning change. The special trait of the tube compressors is their nonlinear compression characteristic resulting in a compression ratio that’s automatically adjusted based on gain reduction and not by the user, which is why these compressors don’t really ever have a separate ratio control. A lot of other compressors use tubes in their circuitry but can’t be defined as a tube compressor because their use of tubes in the circuit is to color the sound instead of using the tube as a gain reduction element. Tube compressors are said to be gentle hitting with a slower reaction than other types, able to add warmth and color, adding good saturation characteristics, and having pleasant distortion.

These compressors live and breathe by their vacuum tubes also known as valves. The Edison Effect says that if a light bulb, where its air has been removed, electrons will flow from the light bulb’s heated filament to a separate electrode. The parts of a vacuum tube include the cathode, electrode(s), anode(s), and envelope. The cathode is what gets heated to supply electrons. An electrode is a part that controls and collects the electrons supplied by the cathode. The anode is a positive electrode. It supplies positive voltage in the space around the cathode. The envelope is where the electrodes are mounted. The plate is usually one of the anodes of the tube, and the goal during operation is for the electrons to flow from the negatively charged cathode to the positively charged plate, which only works if there’s a positive voltage applied to the plate.

As more electrodes and anodes are added to the tube configuration, there’s a different name for the tube. With three electrodes, it’s referred to as a triode. This is where another electrode, the control grid, is put between the cathode and plate. If the plate is positively charged in this setup, the control grid’s DC voltage becomes more negative, repelling more electrons, so the plate current decreases. Correspondingly, if the control grid’s DC voltage is more positively charged, the plate will attract more electrons, increasing the plate’s current. So, in the triode, the plate current varies with the applied signal voltage. Add another electrode, screen grid, between the control grid and the plate, then the tube is called a tetrode. Add a fifth electrode, the suppressor grid, to the cathode, and now the tube can be called a pentode.

In vacuum tubes, as the input signal increases, less current will go to the control grid (one of the electrodes of the vacuum tube), meaning the output signal level decreases.  The control grid is where the input usually gets applied. It controls the electron flow between the cathode and another part of the tube called the plate. The plate is where the output is usually taken from. The delta-mu type tube is a pentode vacuum tube built with a special grid. The gain in the grid can be varied by raising the negative bias on the control grid.

The Manley Laboratories Variable Mu® is the unit that usually comes to mind nowadays when thinking of a delta-mu type compressor. This compressor operates based on its re-biased vacuum tube. So much, in fact, the term Variable Mu® is used more in the engineer vernacular than “delta-mu” today. Manley Laboratories has owned the trademarked Variable Mu® term since the year 2000.

A variable-mu tube, in the prime days of radio broadcasting, was also called a remote-cutoff amplifier tube. This was a specific type of tetrode or pentode, made to reduce modulation distortion and cross modulation. It’s claim to fame is being able to handle both large and small strength input signals in a large dynamic range with a result that yields minimum levels of distortion. The remote-cutoff tube’s grid is specifically structured to allow a variation in the tube’s amplification factor due to any change in the grid’s bias. The control grid is specially wound with open spacing in the middle and closed space at its end. So, if low strength input is applied to the tube’s input, the grid bias will be low and the tube output acts like a normal tube. But as the input signal increases, the grid bias will become more negative to handle this, so the electrons flowing from the end cathode sections (that have winding that’s not as spaced) will get cutoff, meaning the plate current will only have the middle section of the cathode (with the spaced out winding) to rely on to operate. The result is the tube’s gain has changed so the larger signal doesn’t get distorted.

The other famous delta-mu compressors are the Fairchild 660 and its relative the Fairchild 670. Other delta-mu compressors include the RCA BA-6A, Altec 436, Universal Audio 175, Universal Audio 176, Collins 26UI, Collins 356E1, Federal AM864U, and the Gates Sta-Level.

OTHER TYPES OF COMPRESSORS

These types of compressors also exist, but you don’t really hear about them as much for various reasons. It was probably due to complexity or money.

There are the diode ring compressors. Diodes are components that only allow electrons to flow in one direction. These are based on the diode ring or diode bridge configuration and are said to add color due to the inherent harmonic distortion from the diodes and the transformers in the circuitry. The input signal is sent through 2 opposite corners of the diode bridge, and a control signal is sent across the other 2 opposite corners of the diode bridge. The diodes act as a VCA but only in a certain range and under a bunch of specific circumstances and specific transformer setup. Then the diodes’ conductance varies with applied voltage. Even then, it requires a bunch of other specific conditions before it starts being compressed. These compressors have a long and proud history in radio broadcasting for auto level control but aren’t really seen in the modern compressor scene. The compression curves, attack, and release characteristics can be independently configured from the compression element in the circuit. Some examples include the Neve 2264, Neve 33609, Neve TG12413, Chandler TG1, Chandler TG12413 Zener, Rupert Neve Designs 5254, and the Rupert Neve Shelford Channel Strip Compressor.

There are compressors based on operational transconductance amplifiers (OTA). The circuitry, in the simplest terms, can be thought of like a VCA chip, but the output is a varied current instead of a varied voltage. Transconductance is a measurement of amplifier gain that relates input voltage with output voltage. Usually, transconductance is measured in Siemens. The OTA has a pair of differential inputs and a single output. The output is a current. The gain in the OTA is expressed as conductance. The inner workings of this compressor go beyond this article. The epitome OTA-based compressor is the original MXR Dyna Comp. It ran on the CA3280 OTA originally manufactured by RCA and released in 1971. The original CA3280’s are not manufactured anymore. There were a lot of company acquisitions and mergers that ultimately led to MXR being buried somewhere under the reorganized Intersil (not the original Intersil – it’s a rabbit hole if one chooses to research further). Now the modern alternatives that don’t live up to the original, according to many, include the LM13600 (also discontinued as of 2005) LM13700 – both licensed by National Semiconductor. The rarity of the original CA3280 as a replacement part no doubt contributes to the lack of mentions of the OTA-type compressors.  

MORE COMPRESSOR TRIVIA

Remember that a dynamic equalizer is NOT the same as a multi-band compressor. The multi-band compressor involves the frequency range getting split into bands via crossover networks (in a passive circuit). Each of these split frequency bands has a fixed center frequency and each of them get their own dedicated compression controls. In a dynamic equalizer, the crossover filter EQ slopes are not fixed so the user can the center frequency of the frequency band they want to compress.

Sometimes on compressors, there’s an option near the release called “auto-release.” This means each of the time constant circuits in the unit will have different dedicated capacitors for different input signal level. The loudest signal voltages will charge one of the capacitors that’s set to have a super quick discharge time. The quietest signals will have a capacitor that’s set to have the slow discharge time. There may be other capacitors that are set to work with input signals with levels in between loudest and quietest levels. This setup allows a more natural sounding release and recovery to the uncompressed state on a signal. Once the signal goes below the threshold, the recovery back to uncompressed is initially quick, but then slows down, with the intention to avoid the pumping effect and goal of letting ambient noise not being so obvious.

CONCLUSION

With the various sources viewed in researching for this article, the best conclusion that can be drawn about analog compressor types is that one needs to find a hardware unit or watch videos of people with them to hear different output qualities of different compressor types. The different opinions of people’s subjective experience with each one, compounded with the added ideas of using it outside of intended straightforward level control, means one needs to draw their own conclusion about the different types of compressor gain reduction circuits. Just use your ears.

Technical Consultants

EveAnna Dauray Manley

Robert Morin

Joe Vezzetti

Online Sources (there are a lot)

audiohertz.com/2017/08/07/what-are-the-different-types-of-compressors/

create.routenote.com/blog/what-are-the-different-types-of-compressors/

masteringtuition.com/tutorial/limiters/

reverb.com/news/reverbs-guide-to-audio-compressor-types

reverb.com/news/what-are-the-types-of-compressor-effects-the-basics

samplecraze.com/product/multiband-compression/

smmastering.com/know-the-types-of-compressors-and-how-they-work/

samplecraze.com/product/the-4-modes-of-compression/

samplecraze.com/tutorials/compressor-types-fet-opto-vca-and-vari-mu/

till.com/blog/archives/2005/06/last_of_the_ota.html

www.electrosmash.com/mxr-dyna-comp-analysis

www.izotope.com/en/learn/4-types-of-analog-compression-and-why-they-matter-in-a-digital-world.html?srsltid=AfmBOopVMibVnl0jLRv7qAw7HkYe62-k44-I9FZIMLXfFHPPYhnEdh13

www.manley.com

www.masteringbox.com/learn/audio-compressors-vca-opto-fet-compression-circuit-types

www.ovnilab.com/articles/comptypes.shtml

www.practical-music-production.com/different-types-of-audio-compressors/

www.soundonsound.com/techniques/compressor-circuits

www.soundonsound.com/sound-advice/q-what-does-compressors-auto-release-control-do

www.soundonsound.com/techniques/classic-compressors

www.uaudio.com/blog/audio-compression-basics/?srsltid=AfmBOormoeJAm-pluO8DNk7SlMMXn7A2UdLaOWnfzxn1brtjyfpmF6fc

www.uaudio.com/blog/teletronix-la-3a-origins/

www.uaudio.com/blog/tube-v-solid-state-compressors/

www.youtube.com/watch?v=_4mgsNN7glo

Books and Scanned PDFs

Audio Cyclopedia 2nd ed.; Howard M. Tremaine; 1979

Grob’s Basic Electronics 11th ed. Mitchel E. Schultz, 2011

Manley ELOP®+ Owner’s Manual Manley Laboratories, Inc., 2015

Manley Stereo Variable Mu® Owner’s Manual Manley Laboratories, Inc., rev. Oct. 2023

Model 1176LN Solid-State Limiting Amplifier Universal Audio, Inc. 2009

RCA Receiving Tube Manual 1975

Go Bother People

Over the past few years I’ve had the opportunity to do a handful of interviews (thanks to SoundGirls) and some talkbacks (thanks to Outsiders). After a while I noticed that eventually someone always asks a version of “what’s one piece of advice you would give?” My response to that usually ended up being: Go bother people. Go find someone who’s doing something you want to do (or something even remotely connected) and ask them how they got there. Ask them what they learned and what they would share with someone just starting out.

Personally, I love when people come up to the console during intermission or after a show to ask questions and share that they might be interested in pursuing theatre as a career. I have a stack of business cards at FOH just waiting for someone to walk up and start a conversation.

However, I also know that walking up to a strange to start a conversation is not an easy thing to do. I was the quiet kid in college who was more likely to sit back and absorb what was happening than put myself out there and ask questions. I was always worried about sounding dumb or appearing pushy or annoying. But now that I’m on the other side of those interactions, I wish I’d spoken up and reached out more. The truth is that almost everyone is happy to talk and answer questions. We’re all potential mentors just waiting to have an audience for our stories.

So, when you find someone doing what you want to do, go talk to them. If it’s at a show, find a moment before the show starts or at intermission to say hi, let them know that you’re interested in what they’re doing, and ask if you can come back at intermission or after the show to chat. Bonus points if you can find their job in the playbill and know their name! If I know someone’s going to come back to say hi, I’ll actually stick around at intermission, otherwise I book it backstage as quickly as I can to avoid everyone charging to the bathrooms or standing in the bar line.

Then, when you get to talk to them, think of a specific question or two to ask. I couldn’t care less if it’s “how long have you been doing this?” or “how do you like working on this show?” Even what seems like a simple question can spark a larger conversation. (Pro tip: if you’re a little shy and your parents are with you, bring them along as a buffer. They are great at asking questions, especially when they’re talking to someone about their kids’ potential future career.)

What it comes down to is that I want to talk to you and share what I do, but I want it to be things that you’re actually interested in. Just like you, most of us aren’t great at talking to people we’ve never met, so if you can give us even a nudge in the right direction it can help immensely.

Before you leave, ask if you can email them or reach out to them on social media. Some people just don’t think about it in the moment, but will be happy to say yes if you bring it up. I know of several people who keep business cards at FOH for that very reason.

If you forget, see if you can look them up somehow. I’ve had people message me on my LinkedIn profile or email SoundGirls asking them to forward an email so I can get in touch with them.

Once you have their contact info the most important step is to actually follow up and send the email. It wasn’t a first date, you don’t have to wait the proverbial three days so you don’t seem desperate. You want to show that you’re interested. I would guess the number of people who’ve followed up with me is a slim 10% or less.

Just like the initial questions, this doesn’t have to be eloquent or complicated. A simple “Thanks for giving me your card, would you mind if I reach out in the future with any questions?” is a perfectly fine intro. I think far too many people get too into their heads about needing to make a grand gesture when all you need is the electronic version of reaching out for a handshake.

Don’t get discouraged if the response isn’t immediate. There are plenty of times I’ve read an email, marked it to respond later, then got distracted with any number of things. Or it accidentally got filtered into Spam.

Since I still vividly remember what it’s like being the kid that didn’t want to cause a fuss I’ll make a point to tell people to give me a nudge if they don’t hear from me in a week. It’s not rude or pushy to do that follow up, often times we just get sidetracked and forget that we haven’t actually responded.

In general, I would say three is the magic number for trying to establish contact initially. If you reach out that many times over the course of a couple weeks and don’t hear anything back, likely they don’t have the time to respond. If you’ve already been talking, you have some more leeway since there’s an established relationship.

Once you have reached out and they’ve responded, continue to ask specific questions, even if it feels simplistic or like you’re just making up something to reach out to them. Like I said before, specific questions are easier to answer and once you start a conversation, the responses you get will bring up other questions and make it easy to continue chatting.

This is something that applies not only to meeting new people, but for reaching out to the ones you know. When you’re starting out in your career don’t be afraid to reach out and ask people for advice or see if you can shadow on projects they’re working on or let them know you’d like to work with them if there’s ever an opportunity.

Quite honestly, these are things you should do no matter where you are in your career. You can’t expect other people to read your mind, so learning to advocate for yourself and ask for opportunities early in your career will help you down the road. If you get nervous about reaching out to someone, just remember that we’re all people.

Imagine someone a few years younger than yourself coming to ask for help. Would you be happy to lend a hand and give them advice? The answer is usually yes, and the same applies in the other direction when you’re the ones asking for help.

So this is your sign to take a moment today and think of someone you’ve wanted to learn from. Then go reach out and ask them for help. Chances are you’ll be pleasantly surprised.

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